阶段1：脂肪水肿被遗忘的面孔
2026/5/2
参考文献
- Forner-Cordero Isabel, Forner-Cordero Angeles, Szolnoky Győző (2021). Update in the management of lipedema.. International angiology : a journal of the International Union of Angiology. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.23736/S0392-9590.21.04604-6
▼摘要
Lipedema is a chronic feminine disease that causes abnormal fat deposition in lower limbs and occasionally upper limbs. Easy bruising and pain are common. Lipedema patients suffer from both physical and psychological disability. Despite the relatively high prevalence and the impact on the quality of life, little is known about the disease. Most patients are misdiagnosed as lymphedema or obesity. The aim was to perform a non-systematic review on lipedema literature, related to diagnosis and therapy. A literature search was performed by three researchers, to retrieve pertinent articles in PubMed Web of Science and ResearchGate from the last 20 years. The documents were selected from systematic reviews, reviews, meta-analyses, consensus documents and guidelines, randomized controlled trials and retrospective, cohort and clinical series. Regarding pathophysiology, alterations are not exclusively confined to adipose tissue. Lymphatic dysfunction, cardiovascular variations, blood capillary fragility and increased permeability are common. Patients often present with neurological alterations and hormonal malfunction. Elevated cutaneous sodium has been documented. Due to the absence of a defined etiology, evidence-based research is difficult in the management of lipedema. The setting of realistic expectations is important for both patient and medical care provider. The major aims of the management are multimodal for improvements in the quality of life; reduction in heaviness and pain, reshaping the affected limbs, weight control, improvements in mobility. Compression garments, physical therapy, exercise regimens, diet and psychological counseling are necessities. For selected patients, surgical treatment is an added option. - Reich-Schupke Stefanie, Schmeller Wilfried, Brauer Wolfgang Justus, Cornely Manuel E, Faerber Gabriele, Ludwig Malte, Lulay Gerd, Miller Anya, Rapprich Stefan, Richter Dirk Frank, Schacht Vivien, Schrader Klaus, Stücker Markus, Ure Christian (2017). S1 guidelines: Lipedema.. Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellschaft = Journal of the German Society of Dermatology : JDDG. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.1111/ddg.13036
▼摘要
The present, revised guidelines on lipedema were developed under the auspices of and funded by the German Society of Phlebology (DGP). The recommendations are based on a systematic literature search and the consensus of eight medical societies and working groups. The guidelines contain recommendations with respect to diagnosis and management of lipedema. The diagnosis is established on the basis of medical history and clinical findings. Characteristically, there is a localized, symmetrical increase in subcutaneous adipose tissue in arms and legs that is in marked disproportion to the trunk. Other findings include edema, easy bruising, and increased tenderness. Further diagnostic tests are usually reserved for special cases that require additional workup. Lipedema is a chronic, progressive disorder marked by the individual variability and unpredictability of its clinical course. Treatment consists of four therapeutic mainstays that should be combined as necessary and address current clinical symptoms: complex physical therapy (manual lymphatic drainage, compression therapy, exercise therapy, and skin care), liposuction and plastic surgery, diet, and physical activity, as well as psychotherapy if necessary. Surgical procedures are indicated if - despite thorough conservative treatment - symptoms persist, or if there is progression of clinical findings and/or symptoms. If present, morbid obesity should be therapeutically addressed prior to liposuction. - Sørlie Vilde, De Soysa Ann Kristin, Hyldmo Åsne Ask, Retterstøl Kjetil, Martins Catia, Nymo Siren (2022). Effect of a ketogenic diet on pain and quality of life in patients with lipedema: The LIPODIET pilot study.. Obesity science & practice. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.1002/osp4.580
▼摘要
Lipedema is an underdiagnosed condition in women, characterized by a symmetrical increase in subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) in the lower extremities, sparing the trunk. The lipedema SAT has been found to be resistant to diet, exercise and bariatric surgery, in regard to both weight loss (WL) and symptom relief. Current experience indicates that a low carbohydrate and high fat (LCHF-diet) might have a beneficial effect on weight and symptom management in lipedema. To assess the impact of an eucaloric low carbohydrate, high fat (LCHF)-diet on pain and quality of life (QoL) in patients with lipedema. Women diagnosed with lipedema, including all types and stages affecting the legs, (age 18-75 years, BMI 30-45 kg/m) underwent 7 weeks of LCHF-diet and, thereafter 6 weeks of a diet following the Nordic nutrition recommendations. Pain (visual analog scale) and QoL (questionnaire for lymphedema of the limbs), weight and body composition were measured at baseline, week seven and 13. Nine women (BMI: 36.7 ± 4.5 kg/m and age: 46.9 ± 7 years) were recruited. The LCHF diet induced a significant WL -4.6 ± 0.7 kg (-4.5 ± 2.4%), < 0.001 for both, and reduction in pain (-2.3 ± 0.4 cm, = 0.020). No correlation was found between WL and changes in pain at week seven (r = 0.283, = 0.460). WL was maintained between week seven and 13 (0.3 ± 0.7 kg, = 0.430), but pain returned to baseline levels at week 13 (4.2 ± 0.7 cm, = 0.690). A significant increase in general QoL was found between baseline and week seven (1.0 (95% CI (2.0, 0.001)), = 0.050) and 13 (1.0 95% CI (2.0, 0.001) = 0.050), respectively. A LCHF-diet is associated with reduction in perceived pain and improvement in QoL, in patients with lipedema. Larger randomized clinical trials are needed to confirm these findings. - Kruppa Philipp, Georgiou Iakovos, Biermann Niklas, Prantl Lukas, Klein-Weigel Peter, Ghods Mojtaba (2020). Lipedema-Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment Options.. Deutsches Arzteblatt international. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2020.0396
▼摘要
Lipedema is often unrecognized or misdiagnosed; despite an estimated prevalence of 10% in the overall female population, its cause is still unknown. There is increasing awareness of this condition, but its differential diagnosis can still be challenging. In this article, we summarize current hypotheses on its pathogenesis and the recommendations of current guidelines for its diagnosis and treatment. This review is based on publications about lipedema that were retrieved by a selective search in the MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library databases. The pathophysiology of lipedema remains unclear. The putative causes that have been proposed include altered adipogenesis, microangiopathy, and disturbed lymphatic microcirculation. No specific biomarker has yet been found, and the diagnosis is currently made on clinical grounds alone. Ancillary tests are used only to rule out competing diagnoses. The state of the evidence on treatment is poor. Treatment generally consists of complex decongestive therapy. In observational studies, liposuction for the permanent reduction of adipose tissue has been found to relieve symptoms to a significant extent, with only rare complications. The statutory healthinsurance carriers in Germany do not yet regularly cover the cost of the procedure; studies of high methodological quality will be needed before this is the case. The diagnosis of lipedema remains a challenge because of the hetero - geneous presentation of the condition and the current lack of objective measuring instruments to characterize it. This review provides a guide to its diagnosis and treatment in an interdisciplinary setting. Research in this area should focus on the elucidation of the pathophysiology of lipedema and the development of a specific biomarker for it. - Herbst Karen L, Kahn Linda Anne, Iker Emily, Ehrlich Chuck, Wright Thomas, McHutchison Lindy, Schwartz Jaime, Sleigh Molly, Donahue Paula Mc, Lisson Kathleen H, Faris Tami, Miller Janis, Lontok Erik, Schwartz Michael S, Dean Steven M, Bartholomew John R, Armour Polly, Correa-Perez Margarita, Pennings Nicholas, Wallace Edely L, Larson Ethan (2021). Standard of care for lipedema in the United States.. Phlebology. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.1177/02683555211015887
▼摘要
Lipedema is a loose connective tissue disease predominantly in women identified by increased nodular and fibrotic adipose tissue on the buttocks, hips and limbs that develops at times of hormone, weight and shape change including puberty, pregnancy, and menopause. Lipedema tissue may be very painful and can severely impair mobility. Non-lipedema obesity, lymphedema, venous disease, and hypermobile joints are comorbidities. Lipedema tissue is difficult to reduce by diet, exercise, or bariatric surgery. This paper is a consensus guideline on lipedema written by a US committee following the Delphi Method. Consensus statements are rated for strength using the GRADE system. Eighty-five consensus statements outline lipedema pathophysiology, and medical, surgical, vascular, and other therapeutic recommendations. Future research topics are suggested. These guidelines improve the understanding of the loose connective tissue disease, lipedema, to advance our understanding towards early diagnosis, treatments, and ultimately a cure for affected individuals. - Verde Ludovica, Camajani Elisabetta, Annunziata Giuseppe, Sojat Antoanstefan, Marina Ljiljana V, Colao Annamaria, Caprio Massimiliano, Muscogiuri Giovanna, Barrea Luigi (2023). Ketogenic Diet: A Nutritional Therapeutic Tool for Lipedema?. Current obesity reports. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-023-00536-x
▼摘要
This review aims to provide an overview of the current evidence on the efficacy, also considering the anti-inflammatory properties and safety of very low-calorie ketogenic diet (VLCKD) as a potential treatment for lipedema, particularly in the context of obesity. Lipedema is a chronic disease characterized by abnormal and painful fat buildup on the legs and/or arms. It is often misdiagnosed as obesity or lymphedema. However, although lipedema and obesity can coexist, unlike obesity, lipedema usually affects the legs and thighs without affecting the feet or hands, and the abnormal deposition of adipose tissue in lipedema is painful. The current lifestyle interventions are often unsuccessful in the management of lipedema. There is no consensus on the most effective nutritional approach for managing lipedema. Recent studies have suggested that VLCKD may be an effective treatment for lipedema, demonstrating that it is also superior to other nutritional approaches such as Mediterranean diet or intermittent fasting. Lipedema is a chronic and debilitating disease characterized by abnormal and painful accumulation of adipose tissue in the legs. VLCKD has been shown to be an effective treatment for lipedema, especially in the context of obesity, due to its anti-inflammatory properties. However, further research is needed to determine the long-term safety and efficacy of VLCKD as a treatment for lipedema. - Faerber Gabriele, Cornely Manuel, Daubert Constance, Erbacher Gabriele, Fink Jodok, Hirsch Tobias, Mendoza Erika, Miller Anya, Rabe Eberhard, Rapprich Stefan, Reich-Schupke Stefanie, Stücker Markus, Brenner Erich (2024). S2k guideline lipedema.. Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellschaft = Journal of the German Society of Dermatology : JDDG. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.1111/ddg.15513
▼摘要
This S2k guideline was developed on the initiative and under the German Society of Phlebology and Lymphology (DGPL) leadership. The guideline aims to optimize the diagnosis and treatment of lipedema. It is intended to bring together the different approaches of the respective professional groups in a consensus-based manner and thus offer a basic concept for the best possible treatment of patients with lipedema. Sixty recommendations were formulated and agreed on in diagnostics, conservative and surgical treatment options, psychosocial factors and self-management. The guideline is intended to reflect the current scientific knowledge and be widely used for diagnosis and treatment recommendations for patients with lipedema. In particular, the guideline comments on diagnostic criteria, differential diagnoses, and coinciding clinical pictures, their influence on diagnosis and treatment, sensible treatment measures, and self-management options. The lipedema guideline summarizes the current national and international evidence and the German expert consensus and derives recommendations for the best treatment for patients with lipedema. The recommendations in the guideline are intended as an orientation aid in the sense of action and decision-making corridors from which deviations are possible in justified cases. - Vazirnia Aria, Smart David R, Mohseni Yasmine, Amron David M (2026). Lipedema Diagnosis, Clinical Manifestations, and Therapeutics: A Systematic Review.. International journal of dermatology. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.1111/ijd.70227
▼摘要
Lipedema is a chronic, underdiagnosed adipose disorder marked by disproportionate fat accumulation, pain, and impaired mobility. Misdiagnosis as obesity or lymphedema delays care and increases morbidity. We systematically reviewed clinical features, diagnostic criteria, and management options (conservative and surgical). A comprehensive search of the PubMed database was conducted in January 2025 for English-language articles published from January 1950 to January 2023 using the keywords "lipedema" or "lipoedema." Additional references were identified via manual review of relevant systematic reviews. Two independent reviewers screened studies and graded quality using a modified Oxford scale. Of 339 articles, 61 met the inclusion criteria. Most were observational cohorts, case series, or expert consensus, with few randomized trials. Conservative therapies, including ketogenic or Rare Adipose Disorders (RAD) diets, compression therapy, and aquatic exercise, were associated with reduced pain and swelling (Grade 2A-2B). Tumescent liposuction showed the strongest evidence for sustained symptom improvement, mobility, and quality of life (Grade 1 recommendation, evidence quality 2-3). Lipedema is a distinct, progressive condition requiring early recognition and intervention. Conservative therapies may provide partial relief, but tumescent liposuction remains the most effective treatment. Standardized diagnostic criteria, validated patient-reported outcomes, and clearer guidelines are needed to harmonize care and improve long-term outcomes. - Annunziata Giuseppe, Paoli Antonio, Manzi Vincenzo, Camajani Elisabetta, Laterza Francesco, Verde Ludovica, Capó Xavier, Padua Elvira, Bianco Antonino, Carraro Attilio, Di Baldassarre Angela, Guidetti Laura, Marcora Samuele Maria, Orrù Stefania, Tessitore Antonio, Di Mitri Roberto, Auletta Lucia, Piantadosi Angela, Bellisi Mario, Palmeri Edmondo, Savastano Silvia, Colao Annamaria, Caprio Massimiliano, Muscogiuri Giovanna, Barrea Luigi (2024). The Role of Physical Exercise as a Therapeutic Tool to Improve Lipedema: A Consensus Statement from the Italian Society of Motor and Sports Sciences (Società Italiana di Scienze Motorie e Sportive, SISMeS) and the Italian Society of Phlebology (Società Italiana di Flebologia, SIF).. Current obesity reports. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-024-00579-8
▼摘要
This consensus statement from the Italian Society of Motor and Sports Sciences (Società Italiana di Scienze Motorie e Sportive, SISMeS) and the Italian Society of Phlebology (Società Italiana di Flebologia, SIF) provides the official view on the role of exercise as a non-pharmacological approach in lipedema. In detail, this consensus statement SISMeS - SIF aims to provide a comprehensive overview of lipedema, focusing, in particular, on the role played by physical exercise (PE) in the management of its clinical features. Lipedema is a chronic disease characterized by abnormal fat accumulation. It is often misdiagnosed as obesity, despite presenting distinct pathological mechanisms. Indeed, recent evidence has reported differences in adipose tissue histology, metabolomic profiles, and gene polymorphisms associated with this condition, adding new pieces to the complex puzzle of lipedema pathophysiology. Although by definition lipedema is a condition resistant to diet and PE, the latter emerges for its key role in the management of lipedema, contributing to multiple benefits, including improvements in mitochondrial function, lymphatic drainage, and reduction of inflammation. Various types of exercise, such as aquatic exercises and strength training, have been shown to alleviate symptoms and improve the quality of life of patients with lipedema. However, standardized guidelines for PE prescription and long-term management of patients with lipedema are lacking, highlighting the need for recommendations and further research in this area in order to optimise therapeutic strategies. - Kruppa, Philipp; Crescenzi, Rachelle; Faerber, Gabriele; Forner-Cordero, Isabel; Cornely, Manuel; Shayan, Ramin; Karnezis, Tara; Simarro, Jose Luis; de Souza, Paula Frederichi; Herbst, Karen Louise; Ghods, Mojtaba; Michelini, Sandro (2026). Lipedema World Alliance Delphi Consensus-Based Position Paper on the Definition and Management of Lipedema: Results from the 2023 Lipedema World Congress in Potsdam. Nature Communications. Crossref.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-68232-z
▼摘要
Crossref indexed source - Mortada Hatan, Alhithlool Abdulmalek W, AlBattal Nouf Z, Shetty Rashika K, Al-Mekhlafi Ghaleb A, Hong Joon Pio, Alshomer Feras (2025). Lipedema: Clinical Features, Diagnosis, and Management.. Archives of plastic surgery. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2530-5875
▼摘要
Lipedema is an adipose tissue disorder that principally affects women and is frequently misidentified as obesity or lymphedema. There have been relatively few studies that have precisely defined the pathogenesis, epidemiology, and treatment approaches for lipedema. However, successfully recognizing lipedema as a distinct condition is important for proper management. This review aimed to examine the existing literature on the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, differential diagnosis, and treatments for lipedema. The current research indicates that lipedema appears to be a clinical entity related to genetic factors and fat distribution, although distinct from lymphedema and obesity. Some available treatments include complex decongestive physiotherapy, liposuction, and laser-assisted lipolysis. The management of lipedema is complex and differs from that of lymphedema. Further high-quality randomized controlled trials are urgently needed to continue advancing our understanding of this often neglected disease and exploring optimal medical and surgical treatment regimens tailored specifically for lipedema patients. In summary, despite frequent misdiagnosis, enhanced recognition, and research into customized therapeutic strategies for this poorly characterized but likely underdiagnosed disorder represent promising steps forward. N/A. - Di Renzo Laura, Gualtieri Paola, Zomparelli Samanta, De Santis Gemma Lou, Seraceno Silvia, Zuena Claudia, Frank Giulia, Cianci Rossella, Centofanti Domenico, De Lorenzo Antonino (2023). Modified Mediterranean-Ketogenic Diet and Carboxytherapy as Personalized Therapeutic Strategies in Lipedema: A Pilot Study.. Nutrients. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15163654
▼摘要
In recent years, the use of the ketogenic diet as a proper nutritional treatment for lipedema has been hypothesized in the literature. This is the first clinical study evaluating the ketogenic diet and carboxytherapy in lipedema patients. In the present study, it was decided to use a modified Mediterranean ketogenic diet (MMKD) in combination with carboxytherapy. Since lipedema is characterized by microangiopathy, local hypoxia, and increased subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) deposition, carboxytherapy could improve painful symptoms and skin tone. A total of 22 subjects were included in the data analysis, divided into three groups; 8 patients underwent MMKD combined with carboxytherapy sessions (KDCB group), 8 underwent MMKD nutritional treatment alone (KD group), and 6 patients underwent only carboxytherapy sessions (CB group), for a total of 10 weeks of treatment for all three groups. It was observed that the ketogenic diet effectively induced weight and fat mass loss, including in the limbs, areas considered unresponsive to diet therapy in lipedema patients. However, the best results were obtained from the combination of the ketogenic diet and carboxytherapy, which showed improvements in both body composition and skin texture and a reduction in pain, along with an improvement in sleep quality. It would be helpful to conduct a clinical trial on a larger scale and over a more extended period to observe the results in the long term as well. - Cifarelli Vincenza (2025). Lipedema: Progress, Challenges, and the Road Ahead.. Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13953
▼摘要
Lipedema is a chronic and progressive disease that predominantly affects women, characterized by a disproportionate increase in subcutaneous adipose tissue (AT), particularly in the lower limbs. It is associated with significant physical disability, chronic pain, thromboembolism, and psychosocial distress. Despite its profound impact on women's health and quality of life, lipedema remains underrecognized and insufficiently studied, with an estimated prevalence of approximately 10% among women worldwide. Although the exact etiology of lipedema remains unclear, emerging evidence suggests a multifactorial origin involving genetic predisposition, hormonal influences, and vascular dysfunction-all contributing to its development and progression. Current therapeutic options provide only partial symptom relief and remain noncurative, highlighting the urgent need for expanded research and improved management strategies. A systematic review was conducted to assess the current understanding of lipedema pathophysiology and current treatment options. Research articles were sourced from PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Scopus databases. Over 100 studies were incorporated. This review provides a comprehensive overview of lipedema, encompassing its clinical features, pathophysiological mechanisms, diagnostic challenges, and current treatment modalities. Additionally, the review discusses whether the molecular and metabolic differences between abdominal and femoral AT depots mirror those observed in classical obesity. Multidisciplinary, research-informed care is essential for managing lipedema, combining conservative therapies, tailored exercise, and liposuction for advanced cases. More research to better understand the underlying pathophysiology is critical to developing targeted treatments, improving diagnostic accuracy, and informing standardized, evidence-based care. - Amato Alexandre Campos Moraes, Amato Juliana Lelis Spirandeli, Benitti Daniel Augusto (2024). The Efficacy of Ketogenic Diets (Low Carbohydrate; High Fat) as a Potential Nutritional Intervention for Lipedema: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.. Nutrients. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16193276
▼摘要
Lipedema is a frequently misdiagnosed condition in women, often mistaken for obesity, which significantly deteriorates both quality of life and physical health. Recognizing the necessity for holistic treatment strategies, research has increasingly supported the integration of specific dietary approaches, particularly ketogenic diets focusing on low-carbohydrate and high-fat intake. to evaluate the impact of ketogenic diets on women with lipedema through a systematic review and meta-analysis. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted by reviewing published, peer-reviewed studies addressing the implications of a low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) ketogenic diet in managing lipedema following comprehensive scrutiny of digital medical databases, such as PubMed, PubMed Central, Science Direct, and the Web of Science. This research was governed by specified parameters, including an established search string composed of search terms and an eligibility criterion (PICO) as denoted by the principal authors. Statistical analysis was carried out using RevMan 5.4.1 software with the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale utilized for quality appraisal of the included studies. Seven studies reporting statistical outcomes were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis following a rigorous quality appraisal and data identification process. Three hundred and twenty-nine female participants were diagnosed with lipedema and treated using a low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet. Data analysis identified the high-fat diet with a mean study duration of 15.85 weeks. Mean Differences (MDs) on changes pre- and post-intervention showed significant reductions in BMI and total body weight [4.23 (95% CI 2.49, 5.97) < 0.00001 and 7.94 (95% CI 5.45, 10.43) < 0.00001 for BMI and body weight, respectively]. Other anthropometric measurements, such as changes in waist/hip circumferences and waist/hip ratios, showed a significant reduction in these parameters, with an MD of 8.05 (95% CI 4.66, 11.44) < 0.00001 and an MD of 6.67 (95% CI 3.35, 9.99) < 0.0001 for changes in waist and hip circumferences from baseline, respectively. Lastly, changes in pain sensitivity were statistically significant post-intervention [MD 1.12 (95% CI, 0.44, 1.79) = 0.001]. All studies scored fair on the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. despite the limited studies and low number of study participants, the review observed a significant reduction in anthropometric and body composition metrics, indicating a potentially beneficial association between LCHF ketogenic diets and lipedema management. - van la Parra Raquel F D, Deconinck Christine, Krug Bruno (2024). Diagnostic imaging in lipedema: A systematic review.. Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity. PubMed.https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13648
▼摘要
Diagnosing lipedema remains a challenge due to its heterogeneous presentation, co-existing diseases, and the lack of objective diagnostic imaging. This systematic review aims to outline the currently available diagnostic imaging methods to characterize lipedema in the legs along with their diagnostic performance. PubMed, Embase, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched. The quality assessment of diagnostic accuracy studies (QUADAS) tool was used for quality assessment. Thirty-two studies describing a total of 1154 patients with lipedema were included for final analysis. Features for lipedema have been defined using ultrasound (increased subcutaneous adipose tissue), lymphoscintigraphy (slowing of the lymphatic flow and a frequent asymmetry between the lower extremities), computed tomography (symmetrical bilateral soft tissue enlargement without either skin thickening or subcutaneous edema), magnetic resonance imaging (increased subcutaneous adipose tissue), MR lymphangiography (enlarged lymphatic vessels up to a diameter of 2 mm), and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (fat mass in the legs adjusted for body mass index (BMI) ≥ 0.46 or fat mass in the legs adjusted for total fat mass ≥ 0.384). The diagnostic performance of currently available imaging modalities for assessing lipedema is limited. Prospective studies are needed to evaluate and compare the diagnostic performance of each imaging modality. Imaging techniques focusing on the pathogenesis of the disease are needed.